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Some TV programs tell us about the formation of the first stars. When the narrator says they are made of gas and dust, I want to scream out. Throw the remote at the screen. There is no dust. Dust comes after many generations of stars.
So, here’s an alternate view.
Sometime after hydrogen atoms are built, including isotopes, the remaining super force gathers all of the atoms within its range. Remember the extra room between large groups left over from failed subparticles? Well, that extra space comes into play immediately. It separates hydrogen atoms into clusters such that they can be gathered together as groups instead of one large collection that fills the young universe: yea, what a star that would have been.
These clouds are the largest assemblies of atoms ever to be collected, or ever will be collected. Not millions of miles across but billions of miles across. The atoms have no charge. They are neutral. They don’t care if they are close together. So, in a short time the remaining super force compresses these atoms closer and closer together. Most of them become partners. They are couples, the second generation of molecules.
At first, there is little resistance. But after joining to become molecules, they reach a limit. They begin to push back. The pushback is in vain because the remaining super force is the most powerful compressing force in existence. Hydrogen can only take so much togetherness. Molecules like their freedom. Banging into one another is not freedom. They grow hot. The superforce isn’t finished. It brings to bear more and more pressure. Hydrogen becomes hotter and hotter. Our Universe has declared that a molecule has its freedom, and it will defend it with heat energy. The closer atoms come to each other the more heat energy they release. But the energy has no place to go except to its neighbor. Transferring the heat is akin to a bucket brigade fighting a fire. But the buckets are empty of anything but flames.
At a certain stage, physical compression comes to a critical point. The molecules are as close as they can get and remain in their natural atomic configurations, so electrons begin to change orbits.
When hydrogen molecules are pressed together beyond this critical limit, adjacent atom electron/electron action forces the orbitals closer to the nucleus. The universe has also amended laws. Electron orbitals are restricted to certain levels, and when they change orbitals, there is a price to pay. When moving inwardly they must become lighter; that is, they shall release some material. As said before, the material released must become energy. The energy is in the form of radiation. The amount depends on how far the electron moves inwardly. While hydrogen has only one electron, it must still abide by those rules set forth and yield energy at every level.
Let’s side step for a moment. This experiment requires a rocket and a payload to put in orbit. It’s a simple rocket and payload, something like Sputnik I, the first satellite Russia put into Earth orbit, October, 1957. The idea here is to realize the difference in energy required to launch the same payload to various heights. It’s easy to understand that to put a satellite in a 400 mile orbit requires more rocket fuel than it does to put the same one in orbit at 200 miles. And even much more fuel, therefore energy, to place the same object in a 1000 mile orbit. Not all the energy goes into the satellite. Most goes into the transport vehicle and its fuel just to get it into orbit, so very little gets into the satellite itself. Still, it has more energy in a high orbit than in a low orbit. So, the higher the orbit, the more the energy required to put it there. If the objective is to have the satellite escape Earth’s gravity, that requires even more energy. Think, Voyager or Mars Lander.
Then there are asteroids, those asteroids running around the sun between Mars and Jupiter. While wandering round and round the sun, they seem harmless enough. Yet they have a tremendous amount of energy. It is potential energy. A large rock hitting the earth from the asteroid belt inflects much more damage than the same size rock from a 200 mile orbit.
Such is the electron. An electron has more material and therefore the most energy when it’s free, running wild. When a hydrogen nucleus captures it, it must lose matter in the form of energy. That is, a filament is cast off to return to energy, maybe more than one filum depending on the quantity of energy required to do the job.
So why does nature require the electron to dispel or absorb matter when it changes orbits?
As before, the explanation requires using a satellite. Suppose a powered satellite moves from a 200 mile orbit to a 250 mile orbit. The satellite first must gain speed to get up there but slows down when it reaches the higher orbit. Its new orbit is not circular. It is elliptical and at its apogee—its highest point and slowest point. From there it falls towards Earth and gains speed until it reaches its perigee, its closest point and fastest point. Then it trades speed for altitude climbing back up to its new height. Certain other maneuvers are required to put the satellite into a circular orbit from there. Further, if the satellite is huge and weighs tons it only requires more fuel to get in its position. The orbit will remain the same.
Here’s the strange thing about orbits under the influence of the superforce. Once stable, weight of the object has nothing to do with its distance from Earth. It could be as heavy as an M1A1 tank or as light as a feather. It doesn’t matter. The only requirement is its speed and location above the center of the earth.
While asteroids revolve around the sun instead of the earth, the law is the same. Some objects are hundreds of miles in length—a few spherical—while others are the size of a grain of sand. The material in each one varies by millions of kilograms, but they all remain in the same orbit. That is until something influences the object. Think dinosaur extinction. Further understanding of why this is so will come during the subject of freefall.
However, electron orbitals are not under the influence of gravity. They must obey different laws: laws that govern atoms, laws that subparticles having charges must obey. An electron’s speed does not determine its orbital. The speed remains the same no matter what the distance is from its nucleus. However, the farther away from its nucleus, the less influence the mutual attraction becomes. Under these terms, it’s rather easy to understand that an object closer in to its nucleus having more material as one revolving around at the same speed as one farther out, will not remain there long. It will be sent flying out so far as to become detached from its nucleus. But, if that same object becomes much lighter, it could remain in the required orbital forever, or until something forces it to change. Since electrons orbit at the same speed, about 90% c, they must release matter in the form of energy or gain matter in the form of energy when they change orbits.
So, the first stars have two things going for them to ignite: heat due to compression, and heat due to radiation. Because of neighboring electron/electron reaction, when atoms get squeezed too close together the outer electrons are forced to give up their orbits in exchange of energy for inward orbits. And heat due to radiation is much more than that caused by compression, thousands of times more. It’s akin to atomic bombs. Material turns into energy. Except, electrons can recover the material, atomic bombs cannot.
Once the heat and closeness reaches a critical point, nuclear fusion begins. The two atoms of a hydrogen molecule become one atom of helium releasing a tremendous amount of energy. Things become even hotter creating more helium. But these super large stars don’t last long. They blow themselves up creating heavier atoms. Finally, after some time and several generations of stars, dust in the form of silica based molecules and other elements come into existence. Now comes the dust. It becomes scattered about, intermingling with hydrogen gas and what-all.
The subgroups of hydrogen are so large that one super star becomes king of the isolated group. It alone contains most of the hydrogen, but after the first detonation, its children fill the same space. Over time, they make several huge stars and generate more new elements, but the available space remains the same. Nothing new is created because that process requires transformation of composite energy to matter, and that’s all used up in this area.
What was once just a large group of hydrogen atoms is now a large group of stars. After some time, many grandchildren of the superstar exist, and then sometime later, a little dark matter is thrown into the mix.
Something is still lacking. A new metric is needed to realize the size of these first groups of stars. It will be known as the distance light travels in one year. Currently the star count is in the billions, but they wander aimlessly—spread apart too far for the remaining super force to have much of an effect. They are useless for the further advancement of our Universe until all those failed subparticles act in unison.
Remember those first filaments of matter are solid even though they are tiny. Solid objects have a transparency index of zero. More on this later, but for now realize that no superflux gets through a solid. A differential force gathers locally available failed subparticles together into the heaviest object to ever exist. It will be known as a black hole. Over a short period of time, superflux forces the supercluster of stars around this black hole, and it works magic. This supersized object of total blackness influences stars near the center. They revolve around it at a high rate while stars farther out tend to form a disk and revolve in a stable orbit.
However, stars, gas, and dust created from grandparents that are farther away from the center at the outer edge seem unstable. There is not enough material available to keep them attached to the group: more dark matter to the rescue. This seemly worthless failed matter has found another use. It weaves itself throughout the outer region and reigns in wayward stars and even whole solar systems. Soon a beautiful spiral galaxy forms. But the process has been going on in parallel with billions of other galaxies. Smaller, larger, and of various configurations, and our Universe is just a few million Earth years old.
For our purpose, there are two methods for measuring the distance across the universe: the actual size of the entire collection, and the size derived by light.
Let’s look at its actual size first. At one year old, the universe collective is already billions of light years across because that’s how large the composite energy source was when it had expanded enough to bring space and matter into existence. For a detailed explanation of the observable universe, see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observable_universe because that discussion is beyond the scope of this work.
The same conflict presented earlier grows when the current size of our Universe comes into play. When referring to the collection of all universes, the size in light years is the total of all those universes added together. So, when someone says the physical universe is 150 billion light years across, we can assume they are talking about the collective.
With all that under our belt, the size derived by light is determined by its speed; number of universes is determined by the observer’s location. Our Universe’s size is derived by light, and it has grown from a few nanoseconds wide to 27.8 billion light years wide.
The universe is expanding at the same speed it was when matter came into existence. That is, when SE expanded and cooled enough to give us matter. It also stands to reason that anything under pressure, if not restricted, will expand. An example is a rubber balloon filled with air. It will either expand until the rubber exerts an equal pressure to counter the internal pressure or burst.
Since the universe is pressurized, it must also expand. But what is it expanding into? It cannot expand into space because that is part of the universe, but whatever it is, the universe is replacing it with itself. If nothing surrounds the universe, we must ask ourselves, “What is nothing?” The real definition even boggles the minds of a great many scientists. No matter what noun one can imagine, vacuum, space, or any other name, it is still something.
The edge marks the beginning of our Universe and the end of composite energy. There is a marker for that boundary. It’s the CRB. One side is composite energy, the other side, our Universe. Even though the only remaining superforce pressurizes it, composite energy contains that same force along with all others. Therefore, composite energy is the arresting power that restricts a runaway condition of expansion, and we can say that the universe is expanding into that grand energy. That is, the edge moves into the area as composite energy generates space and matter. In another million years the edge will have moved farther into that super field as new space and matter turn into super stars and black holes.
Hopefully it will all become more clear while demonstrating the receding edge.